Science and Magic Part I: Astrology

One of the earliest attempts by man to understand the universe and man’s place in it was the study of astrology.

Early History

Astrology is basically the study of the effects of the movements of the planets and the stars on human activities. The study of astrology dates back to the days of the Babylonians. Its principles were further developed by the Greeks and Romans and later in the middle ages by the Arabs. The Egyptians, Indians, Persians, and the Chinese all observed the planets and the stars in order to predict the course of present and future events whether they were personal, political, military or environmental (prediction of natural disasters).

One famous astrologer/ astronomer was Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus) who lived in the second century in Alexandria, Egypt. He codified the astrological tradition of the Babylonians and was responsible for coining such terms as “planets ascendant in a solar or lunar house” or the “Age of Aquarius.” He set out his astrological principles in his book “Tetrabiblos.” He thought that you could predict a person’s appearance and temperament by knowing the positions of the planets and the stars at the time of an individual’s birth. 

In Ptolemy’s time, there was no clear distinction between astrology and astronomy so that he also wrote about the motion of planets, the precession of the equinoxes, and atmospheric friction.  He named the stars, listed their brightness, argued that the Earth was a sphere, and set down rules for predicting eclipses. Ptolemy tried to understand why planets at times exhibit a strange wandering motion known as retrograde motion, which is the perception by an observer on Earth that a passing planet is moving backwards. This effect occurs when one planet “on the inner lane” or smaller orbit passes a slower moving planet with a larger orbit resulting in each planet “seeing” the other one as apparently moving backwards. Ptolemy’s idea of an Earth centered universe with all planets including the sun moving around it had been known for thousands of years before his time. He imagined that the planets orbiting the Earth were attached to transparent spheres via little wheels.  He built a mechanical device that demonstrated planetary motion (in fact Archimedes is reported to have built a similar device 400 years earlier). Ptolemy’s model was supported by the church for centuries and probably prevented the advance of astronomy for 1000 years.

Importance of Astrology in the 16^th century

During the 16^th century in Europe people felt powerless in a world full of famine, disease, and constant religious conflict. It is therefore of little wonder that many people sought explanations for what was happening around them in the certainty of the stars in the sky. Astrologers took advantage of people’s fears by preparing nativities (horoscopes), which predicted their future and told them what they should do.

Early “scientists” during the 16^th century postulated that the universe was comprised of 7 stars or planets that included the Sun, the Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. These bodies constantly shifted their position in relation to the Earth against a backdrop of the stars forming the 12 signs of the zodiac. A horoscope was a map of the positions of these bodies in the heavens at some future point in time in order to predict what influence the heavens would have on any given occasion.

As strange as it may seem to us today, the doctrines of astrology at the beginning of the 16^th century in Europe was an essential part of the intellectual framework accepted by most educated people at the time. These doctrines taught that there were 4 elements earth, air, water, and fire that these were constantly combining and recombining dependent on the movements of the planets and the stars. It was believed that all physical change was comprised of the interaction of the physiological qualities of heat and cold, dryness and moisture. It was considered necessary to understand astrology in order to understand the physiology of medicine. The stars were also thought to affect plants and minerals (botany and metallurgy) as well as psychology and ethnography. Astrology pervaded all aspects of scientific thought.

Astrologers were very influential in medieval times and physicians also consulted horoscopes to know how best to treatment patients.

Paracelsus’s ideas were based on believing that god provided a remedy for every disease and that the stars influenced human behavior and destinies (astrology and alchemy were considered scientific pursuits in those days).

Types of Astrological Practice

In the 16^th and 17^th centuries, astrology or judicial astrology (since the term astrology was considered synonymous with astronomy in those days) was divided into 4 fields those of the general predictions, nativities, elections, and horary questions. General predictions took into account the movements of the heavens (including eclipses of the sun and moon) in order to forecast the weather, the state of crops, questions of mortality, epidemics, and those of politics and war. The nativities were maps of the sky at the time of a person’s birth that were created in order to predict a person’s prospects for the future. Elections were all about giving advice about choosing the right moment for the right actions by comparing a person’s horoscope with what was known about the future movements of the heavens, Horary questions,  the most controversial of the services offered by the astrologer, were based on the state of the heavens at the time of the “birth of the mind.” For instance if a person had a medical question he would provide the astrologer with a sample of urine and the astrologer’s answer would be his interpretation of the sky at the moment the urine was voided. However, every personal question could be answered as a horary question. (see Religion and the Decline of Magic by Keith Thomas. Penguin Books, London, 1971. pp 337-347)

Famous Practitioners of Astrology

Astrologers (those practicing astrology and preparing horoscopes) at first only consulted kings. Astrologers  were very influential in medieval times e.g. monarchs such as Elizabeth I had her own astrologer, John Dee. Other famous scientists were also astrologers including Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler and even Galileo Galilee.  Physicians also consulted horoscopes to know how best to treatment patients (e.g. William Harvey the discoverer of blood circulation). Other 17th century scientists who believed or practiced astrology included Edmund Gunter the mathematician, and Henry Oldenburg (a president of the Royal Society). Isaac Newton also had an interest in astrology as a young man and it might have been his interest in astrology that led him to astronomy

Up to the 18^th century the heavens and the universe were viewed as the perfect creation of god. However it became increasingly difficult to defend this idea due, for instance, to the discoveries of sunspots and that the surface of the moon was not smooth but riddled with craters by Galileo, and the observation by Tycho Brahe that comets traveled higher than the moon when passing over the Earth. This indicated that the universe was corrupt and changeable. Edmond Halley showed that the appearance of comets in 1531, 1607, and 1682 were all the same one and he correctly predicted that the next appearance would be in 1758.

Modern Attitudes and a Criticism of Astrology

Even today according to a Gallup poll held in 2005 based on telephone calls to around 1000 people, approximately 25% of Americans  believe that the position of the stars and planets can affect people’s lives. There are according to Carl Sagan, 10,000 astrologers in the US and approximately 3000 astronomers and in France more astrologers than Roman Catholic clergy (see the Demon Haunted World by Carl Sagan, Ballantine Books, NY 1996 pp 302-304). These numbers fly in the face of the fact there is no evidence that astrology works. Other facts call astrology into question e.g. the constellations of stars identified to be important in determining horoscopes have changed their positions over time (over 30 degrees). For instance, the original position of the constellation Aries in ancient Greece was pinpointed at its position at the spring equinox. However over the millennia since that time, the sign of Aries is no longer where it originally was. Astrologers however continue to calculate horoscopes based on the old position rather than allowing the position of Aries to move with the equinoxes.

In addition, the only planets that are considered by astrologers are those that can be seen with the naked eye. They do not take into account any newly discovered astronomical objects (e.g. near earth asteroids). Astronomers are inconsistent with the information they require to calculate the position of stars and planets at the time of a subjects birth e.g. the time at birth is taken into consideration but not the latitude and longitude of where a person was born (since this would also affect the observed position of the planets). It has been shown that different astrologers make different predictions when given the same data to start,that there is a lack of correlation of predictions for identical twins, and no correlation has been shown between horoscopes and psychological tests such as the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

The popularity of astrology may have something to do with the selective bias of people who have horoscopes done i.e. that they tend to remember predictions that confirm what they want to believe and conveniently forget those predictions that are false. Perhaps one can consider belief in astrology as somewhere between religion and psychotherapy.

References:

• Science in Medieval Islam by Howard R. Turner. University of Texas Press, Austin1997. pp 108-111
• Cosmos by Carl Sagan. Random House, New York 1980. pp 48-51
• Religion and the Decline of Magic by Keith Thomas. Penguin Books, London, 1971. pp 337-347

Paracelsus the real Dr Faust?

Science in the middle east under Islam was very advanced compared to Europe. This applied to astronomy, geography, and mathematics, and medicine. The writings of the Roman physician Galen,  the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, and the Greek pharmacist Dioscredis were translated into Arabic and were used as a major source of medical knowledge by Persian scholars such as al Razi and Ibn Sina (Avincenna) who both lived in 11th century Persia. These men’s writings were very influential until the 16^th and 17 centuries in Europe.

Based on these early writings passed down through the centuries, physicians in medieval England for instance were taught about the 4 humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile) described by Galen. A diagnosis consisted for the most part of determining which of the humors was out of balance and trying to reestablish the normal balance by either bloodletting (by applying leeches or by venesection) or purging (using enemas), or inducing vomiting. These kinds of treatments often caused more harm than good.

One man living at this time, who opposed theses mindless practices of physicians, was Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493- 1541) more commonly known as Paracelsus. He is considered one of the fathers of the modern practice of medicine.

Paracelsus publicly broke with the past by burning the books of Galen and Avicenna and proclaiming that direct experience of patient’s symptoms was superior to following the writings of ancient authorities.

He was the first to consider looking closely at the symptoms of a patient to determine the cause of their disease instead of merely referring to the old texts of Galen and Avicenna. Paracelsus believed that the causes of diseases originated outside of the body. He thought that the causes of diseases came mainly from minerals and poisons originating in the stars.

His ideas were based on believing that god provided a remedy for every disease and that the stars influenced human behavior and destinies (astrology and alchemy were considered scientific pursuits in those days).  This insight of Paracelsus (although not correct) led future generations of doctors to search for causes of disease outside of the body leading eventually to the discovery of pathogens (e.g. bacteria and viruses) as causes of disease. He believed in the search for new treatments for diseases rather than relying on the old texts of Galen.

Paracelsus was an alchemist who studied the ancient texts of the Arabs (who learned from the Chinese). He called for the search by alchemists for metals and minerals to be used in the treatment of diseases in additional to the commonly used herbal medicines of the time. He observed the ailments of miners in Villach,  Switzerland and wrote a book (“On the Miners’ Sickness and Other Miner’s Diseases”), which was published 25 year after his death but was very influential for centuries afterward. The "miner's sickness" affected the lungs and induced ulcers due to miners breathing in the dust of the minerals in the mines and due to their having contact with poisons via  the skin.  He was able to distinguish between chronic and acute poisoning and noticed the differences between diseases caused by exposure to arsenic, antimony, or to alkalis (e.g. oxides of magnesium, potassium, or calcium). He accurately predicted the symptoms of mercury poisoning (shivering, gastrointestinal disorders, blackening of the teeth, putrefaction of the mouth) and developed a treatment for it. This consisted of creating openings in the body for the mercury to escape by applying corrosive plasters to the skin or by prescribing baths. This type of therapy is still used today. Paracelsus thought more of the folk medicine of the peasants than he did of the remedies prescribed by the established doctors of his time.

Alchemist in Paracelus’s day, believed boiling liquid substances released spirits and the technique of distillation was devised to capture the spirits as they arose from the boiling liquids.  They were convinced that these spirits were powerful especially after drinking them. Actually, alcoholic beverages are sometimes still referred to as spirits.

Paracelsus made progress in the field of chemistry but for the wrong reasons. He believed in the existence of vital spirits who inhabited the different organs of the body (he called them archaei). The vital spirits were spread by the arteries through the body, for example to the ventricles of the brain becoming the animal spirit, and passing through the nerves giving motion to the body. These archaei were little creatures who took human form and controlled the functioning of the stomach, liver and heart. For whatever reason, it was the intuitive and mythical approach of Parcelsus that advanced the study chemistry until its revolutionary development in the 18^th century. This made Paracelus the undisputed founder of modern chemistry.

He was the first to write about there being a miniature man in all sperm cells (the homunculus). This was before it was understood that chromosomes and genes in sperm combine and fertilize the egg cell eventually lead to the development of an embryo and a human being.

Parcelsus realized that the dose of a medicine made the difference between being able to treat a person’s disease successfully and poisoning him. He also believed that sometimes it was better to not do anything rather than to  resort to the invasive practices commonly used  by physicians.

He divided “drugs” into different categories according the disease that they were meant to treat rather than according to the tables of Galen who divided drugs according to the humors that they were meant to treat.

Paracelcus was immortalized by the playwright Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593 a contemporary of Shakespeare) in his play the “Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.” It tells the story of an alchemist who was willing to forgo salvation and live in hell in order to gain power over the mysteries of nature. Two centuries later, Goethe also wrote a poem about Doctor Faustus which makes reference to the life and opinions of Paracelsus as well as his opinions, alchemical symbolism, and the cabbala.

References

Paracelsus Magic into Science by Henry Pachter; Henry Schuman, New York. 1951 pp 14, 56

The Discoverers by Daniel J. Boorstin. Random House Inc, New York, Toronto. 1983. pp 338-344

Science in History by JD Bernal. C.A. Watts and Co. Ltd., London. 1965. pp 272-273

Religion and the Decline of Magic by Keith Thomas.   Penguin Books Ltd. London 1991. pp 271

A Lesser known contemporary of Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler 

It is generally thought that Jews  made no contribution to the advancement of the natural sciences during the middle ages and the Renaissance. The reason for this is that Jew's lives were precarious in those days due to rampant religious persecution and the general instability in Europe in those days.  Jews had no time for scientific pursuits because they had to struggle for survival or were constantly on the move.

One exception to this is David Gans a contemporary of Galileo and Kepler, who was a Talmud scholar historian, mathematician, astronomer and geographer.

He was born in Lippstadt, Germany in 1541 (died 1613). He was educated in Bonn and Frankfurt by famous talmudist teachers and attended the yeshiva in Cracow that was headed by Moses Isserles. Isserles encouraged Gans to study philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and history. He came to Prague in 1564 and was taught by two brothers Sinai ben Bezalel and Jehuda ben Bezalel also known as Rabbi Loew and as the Maharal of Prague (the legendary rabbi who was supposed to have conjured up the Golem). In the late 1560’s, Gans studied Euclidian geometry and mathematics in Nordheim. Because of the relatively peaceful and tolerant atmosphere enjoyed by the Jewish 
community in Prague at the end of the 16^th century and the beginning of the 17^th century, outstanding Jews were allowed to have contact with the Christian community. David Gans established contact with Tycho Brahe and his assistant Johann Müller as well as with Johannes Kepler.

In his book Nehmad ve-naim (“The Pleasant and the Dear” written in Hebrew), Gans reports that he participated in three different observations made in Tycho Brahe’s observatory in Benátky nad jizerou and that he had translated the Alphosine tables from Hebrew into German. The Alphosine tables were created in 1252 upon commission by Alphonso X of Castile in Toledo Spain. These were tables used to determine the positions of the sun, moon, and the planets relative to the fixed positions of stars. Interestingly Gans also knew of the work of Copernicus (concerning the heliocentric theory stating that the sun and not the earth was the center of the solar system). Gans however preferred the system of Ptolemy with an earth centered solar system (Ptolemy was educated by Jewish teachers in his day).

The Nehmad ve-naim is considered to be a unique book written by a Jewish Ashkenazi author of that time that summed up all existing knowledge by both Jewish and non-Jewish scholars on geometry, astronomy, and mathematical geography. It is interesting to note that the book was written during a time of relative conservatism among Central European Jews at that time. His book however remained neglected and was not printed until the 18the century.

David Gans is perhaps best known for his historical work "Zemach David" (the Wand of David) which consisted of a history of the Jews from biblical times till 1592 (considered by him as the sacred part), and a more general history of the world. Also interesting in this work is that it presents a summary of the humanities during the Renaissance from the point of view of a Jewish scholar.

It is a stroke of luck that we know about David Gans and his accomplishments making him an exception to the rule that Jews did not contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the natural sciences in the middle ages. I would suggest that he is at the tip of an ice berg of possibly many more unknown heroes in science.

Source:

RyBar Citibor. 1991 TV Spektrum in cooperation with Akropolis Publishers Jewish Prague (Notes on History and Culture, A Guidebook). pp 155-159